The importance of European glacial landscapes in a context of great climatic variability

Most glaciers of Europe were in full retreat at 18.9 ka. By the time the Holocene began, most of the glaciers had disappeared and, therefore, sea level had risen by about 80 m. However, this retreat was not continuous, but was interrupted by abrupt climate changes, with intense cooling, mainly at 16.2 ka and 12.9 ka, when most of the European glaciers advanced. Warming phases were not constant either, but came with even more abrupt changes, such as the rapid rise in temperatures from 14.6 ka onwards, when glaciers retreated sharply and largely disappeared. Recent research on European glaciated landscapes synthesised in this book provides many of the clues to the complexity of this evolution. Most of the climatic and oceanic parameters involved in these major changes that shaped the landscapes are known, but the mechanisms that caused them remain poorly understood. There are still many challenges for science to overcome in the future. Improved knowledge of these landscapes must lead to an appreciation of their geodiversity, in order to preserve and value them appropriately.