Theoretical modelling of wakes from retractable flapping wings in forward flight

A free-wake method is used to simulate the wake from retractable, jointed wings. The method serves to complement existing experimental studies that visualise flying animal wakes. Simulated wakes are shown to be numerically convergent for a case study of the Rock Pigeon in minimum power cruising flight. The free-wake model is robust in simulating wakes for a range of wing geometries and dynamics without requiring changes to the numerical method. The method is found to be useful for providing low order predictions of wake geometries. However, it is not well suited to reconstructing 3d flowfields as solutions are sensitive to the numerical mesh node locations.